ANSWER 1
1- Theory of evolution and creation controversy, Darwinism and Punctuated Equilibrium and gradual change
Evolution is a biological theory that explains the origin of species on earth. This theory suggests that the different types of plants, animals and other living beings on earth originate from other different organisms that existed before and that were changing through the generations. On the other hand, the creation controversy also called debate about the origin of life; it is but a discussion in the cultural, political and theological fields about the origins of the earth, humanity and other forms of life.
The scientific theory that postulates that the evolution of species is generated from the natural selection of specimens, through inheritance; it’s called Darwinism, the name of the theory derives from Charles Darwin. Darwinism is part of Evolutionism, which holds that the genetic heritage of living beings across different generations has produced biological diversity. All these species evolved from a common ancestor. The novelty of Darwinism is the beginning of the idea of natural selection. Darwin in his work the origin of the species points out that evolution is related to the differential reproduction developed by genotypes. Natural selection refers to environmental conditions hindering or promoting reproduction according to the characteristics of the organism. Charles Darwin believed that evolution was a slow and gradual process, assumed that if evolution is gradual then there should be a record in fossils of small incremental change within a species. On the other hand, this mode of evolution punctuated equilibrium means that species are generally morphologically stable, changing little for millions of years. This leisurely pace is punctuated by a rapid burst of change that results in a new species.
Finally, the theory of evolution has been enriched with the discoveries of science. It makes discoveries constantly. It also helps us understand our origin and how life is transformed. The theory of evolution appears as a consequence of observation and arose to know where we came from and where we are going.
ANSWER 2
Sigmund Freud is one of the most controversial figures in modern medicine. Known as the father of psychoanalysis, he became one of the most influential figures of contemporary thought. Freud’s main contribution to psychology would be his concept of unconsciousness. He held that a person’s behavior was determined by repressed thoughts, desires, and memories; according to his theory Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight.
Freud came to the conviction that mental disorders originate from sexuality, that sex life begins in early childhood. Together with Breuer, he uses hypnosis in order to know all the facts of the past; with which the defense mechanisms that determined the forgetfulness of the traumatic event could be circumvented. He then introduced another treatment technique: free association; the same term discarded as less effective and could not be used in all kinds of patients. In this treatment the patient is taken to a state of relaxation in which he expresses everything that comes to consciousness: images, ideas and memories. He also exhibited an analysis of the psychism; in this structural formulation the psychic apparatus is made up of three instances. The first, the Id which is the unconscious instance that contains all the pulsations and is the part of the personality that seeks immediate satisfaction. The second, the Ego has content for the most good conscious; is governed by the principle of reality and acts as an intermediary between Id and Superego. The third is the Superego who represents moral and social norms influenced in turn by parental patterns. He claimed that the early childhood stage was essential for the development of adult personality and included five phases of psychosexual development. Each one has in common the same objective; achieving sexual pleasure, to calm the stresses of libido. The difference is in the object that provides pleasure. The first stage of development is the oral stage, in which the mouth is the erogenous area by excellence, is the infant phase in which the first object of pleasure is configured; the mother’s chest and comprises the first year of life. Then there is the anal stage that goes up to the three years; the child begins to object to himself as a focus of pleasure; pleasure lies in the release of waste products that reduces tension. The Falica stage continues, around the four years; in which the child begins to develop interest in the father of the opposite sex and goes through the so-called Oedipus complex. After childhood sexuality enters a latency stage from five to twelve years of age; where sexual instincts are repressed until they are reactivated by physiological changes that occur in the reproductive system during puberty. Puberty begins the genital stage in which the individual develops the attraction to the opposite sex and is interested in forming a loving union with another; being the longest stage, as it lasts from adolescence to senility and is characterized by socialization, vocational planning and decisions about marriage and the training of a family. In the theory of Freud’s sexual preference, he suggested that heterosexual preferences symbolized the normal outcome of development and that homosexual preferences were deviations from this process. His views on homosexuality are varied; expressing biological, otherwise social or psychological explanations of sexual preferences. Freud was against everyone who thought homosexuality was a pathological representation.
Anyway, despite criticism of Freud, his ideas and work were pressed by a large group of followers. Having been the main one that caused a revolution in the psychology and thinking of the time. Psychoanalysis lost its unitary forming and served as a basis for the development of many theories.
ANSWER 3 3- The Social Stratification Systems
Social stratification systems consist of specifying factors that are not based on social position such as: income, education, and occupation. Furthermore, social stratification is a sociological concept, which is used to analyze and interpret the classification of individuals and social groups; based on common socioeconomic data and conditions such as occupancy and income, wealth and social status or power (social or political). They are the social layers that are made up of all people, groups and social aggregates, who share a similar site or place within the hierarchy or social scale; where they share similar beliefs, values, attitudes, styles and acts of life. They are categorized by their relative amount of power, prestige or privileges they possess. It is the existence of structural inequalities that exist among the members of society, according to the role they represent and the position they occupy in the social structure.
There are two types of stratification system: closed systems what includes class systems, caste systems and meritocracy and open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it their whole lives. A class consists of a set of people who share similar status about factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. Meritocracy is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort or merit that determines social standing. In modern Western societies, social stratification is distinguished as three social classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class. In turn each class can be subdivided into strata. The upper stratum, the middle stratum and the lower stratum. In addition, a social stratum can be formed on the basis of kinship. The unequal distribution between the different strata identified in social stratification is usually represented through social Pyramid. The higher the position of the individual in the pyramid, the greater his access to the intangible and material resources of society. The basis of pyramid represents the social layer that produces goods and services that is, the proletariat. The social stratifications of open societies that are capitalists are based on the economic power of the individual, while in closed societies what determines this inequality is the origin of the individual, that is, the lineage of his family. Studies on social stratification have as its main reference the theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber, with different approaches. For Weber, society can be stratified based on three orders: economic, social and political. The so-called stands are formed by the social distinction that the individual has in the environment, politics generates so-called parties that are groups made up of people with privileges over others, generating a type of inequality. He also does not see work (the economy) as the most important aspect. According to Marx, social stratification focuses on the class system divided between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. His studies are associated with economic studies and the social aspects of the economy and its effects. As the basis of division, different characters are taken economic, political, biological, racial and religious. Social stratification is assigned different basic principles for example: it is a characteristic of society as a whole, it is perpetuated from generation to generation, it is universal but varies from one society to another and it is a social culture and a belief system.
In short, in all societies there are social inequalities and therefore social stratification. It is characterized by its reliability; because it depends on social mobility, that is the displacement of people from one stratum or class to another. It is vicious and unscientific. Its objective is to make it unnoticed, to mask the decisive criterion of class division. Social stratification stimulates qualified people who enable the proper functioning of society.
ANSWER 4 4- The factors that influence the personality of an individual
Personality is the product of the struggle between our destructive impulses and the pursuit of pleasure. It is the result of the way each person uses to deal with their internal conflicts and the problems of the outside world. They are the characteristics that make a person unique. It is also the dynamic organization that is within everyone. They are patterns of feelings, motives and behavior that establish people.
Personality theories have been created to explain the behavior of people, among them Sigmund Freud’s, which states that personality has three components of the mind: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. The unconscious is the level deeper in the mind; thoughts, memories, impulses and fantasies are hidden in it. The preconscious mind acts as a point of union between the other two sections formed by memory footprints and the conscious one is a system with an intermediary role between the deeper regions of the psyche and the outside world. The Id, the Ego and the superego. The Id is our most instinctive part that directs internal energy in the form of impulses. The Ego is the result of the confrontation of impulses and impulses with reality and the Superego has as its function, judging the behaviors and desires that are not acceptable. Another personality theory is that of Carl Jung, where he proposed that it was configured by the person or part of our personality that serves to adapt to the medium and relates to what can be observed. I also point out that within the collective unconscious there are several archetypes. On the other hand, Carl Rogers’ phenomenological theory where he proposes that each person has his way of seeing the world depending on the behavior of that perception. He believed in the inherent goodness of people and emphasized psychological growth and proposes that personality is derived from self-concept of the experience of one’s existence. There is also the theory of Kelly’s personal constructs, where he thinks that each person has his own mental representation of reality and acts scientifically with the aim of giving an exposition to what surrounds him. In addition, the theory of Allport’s ideographic personality; where he considers that each individual is unique as he has different characteristics different from the rest of the people, we develop ways to act or express the behavior that allow us to adapt to the environment. The theory of Cattell’s personality, it is one of the most famous and recognized, it is structuralist, correlational and internalist just like Allport. Considers that personality can be understood as function of a set of traits, they are divided into temperamental that are the elements that indicate how we act, the dynamics which is the motivation of the behavior or attitude and the fitness that are the skills of the subject to carry out the behavior. The most relevant are temperamental and it is from her that Cattell extracts the sixteen primary personality factors that refer to intelligence, Ego stability, dominance, impulsivity, self-reliance, imagination, cunning, daring, sensitivity, suspicion, conventionalism, rebellion, apprehension, self-control, tension and affectivity. Another theory is Eysenck’s theory, which generates one of the most important explanatory hypotheses of personality from a correlational approach. Eysenck finds and ousts three main factors such as psychoticism, or tendency to act harshly, neuroticism or emotional stability and extraversion- introversion or focus on the outside or inner world. In addition, he considers that the extraversion level depended on the activation of the upstream reticular activation system. There are also other factors that influence an individual’s personality for example: organic factors that are the biological structures acquired through inheritance and the maturation process. They are elements that we receive by inheritance such as temperament, passions, defects and limitations. The environmental factors that are what we acquire throughout life, such as culture, customs, the way we communicate, the way we function and the way we see life. These factors are the influences we have through family, school and friendships. The psychological factors that are all those life experiences that the individual creates with his personal choices.
Finally, the personality study has a wide variety of theoric stories and traditions. His theories include the dispositional, biological, humanistic, psychodynamic and social learning perspectives. The objective of each theory is to perform an analysis to build a model that plasmes all the traits of people; to classify them and make comparisons.
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