Abstract
Only 30% of American fourth graders meet the standards for reading and literacy advocated for internationally. This indicates that reading and literacy proficiency declines among K-12 students as they advance through successive grade levels. The 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (2011) reported that 66% of fourth and eighth graders without learning or physical disabilities and 85% of all students with learning and physical disabilities had poor reading skills that undermined sufficient reading comprehension to understanding incrementally complex texts and reading materials. As such, the purpose of this literature review is to determine if reading interventions that use visual and tactile learning aids based on the UDL principles can help enhance reading comprehension among students with learning disabilities in the lower grade levels (1st-3rd grade or K to 6 grade in elementary school). The Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) guidelines were used to guide the search for relevant articles. Findings indicate that UDL principles can be used to enhance reading comprehension among students with learning disabilities in lower grade levels through the use of educational technologies. To this end, this paper proposes the development of a reading intervention strategy for these young learners using learning tablets that record their reading skills to encourage self-evaluation of their reading comprehension and challenge them to pursue reading fluency early in their academic careers.
Key words: Reading comprehension, reading fluency, reading motivation, Universe Design for Learning (UDL), educational technologies
Introduction
Since the turn of the century, considerable research in education has focused on the importance and low prevalence of reading comprehension among students, particularly in lower grade levels, because of the adverse lifelong impact it has on a learner’s academic career. In truth, reading and literacy have become two of the most contentious issues in the US education system that adversely affects lower grade levels such as elementary school, which affects students’ academic achievement thereafter. During these early grade levels, learning instruction changes from learning to read words and form complete sentences in the first and second grades to reading to learn after the third grade. As such, students who do not develop adequate reading skills during this period become at risk of academic underachievement for the rest of their academic careers (Leidig et al., 2018).
According to Mason et al. (2006), only 30% of American fourth graders meet the standards for reading and literacy advocated for internationally. This indicates that reading and literacy proficiency declines among K-12 students as they advance through successive grade levels. Unfortunately, the teachers the students encounter as they advance through these successive grade levels assume that they have mastered basic reading, math, writing, and reading comprehension skills in order to advance through the previous academic levels thus making their job only to nurture reading comprehension and fluency (Mason et al., 2006). Consequently, they do not anticipate challenges in reading and literacy among upper grade level students until complications become evident through clear signs of reading underachievement during classroom interactions and student participation thus requiring intervention in one form or another (Mason et al., 2006).
Unfortunately, the pressures and demands of contemporary teaching on instructors prevents them dedicating significant resources in terms of their time and concentration on individual students save for special classroom settings such as advanced and special needs classrooms that employ dynamic teaching models ranging from co-teaching to individual education programs (Mason et al., 2006). Combined with dwindling financial resources, there is simply no way for teachers in mainstream classrooms to consider the individual needs of their students, especially in public schools. As such, students with learning disabilities have consistently passed through successive grade levels through minimal classroom participation. In truth, their reading skills continually fall behind those of their cohorts through each successive grade resulting in severely handicapped students in upper grade levels (Joseph et al., 2015).
Of particular concern is the high prevalence of low reading comprehension among students with learning disabilities such as dyslexia and emotional behavioral disorders (EBDs) such as ADHD. Historically, they represent the largest proportion of underachieving students in math, reading, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and written language (Lamport, Graves and Ward, 2012). In fact, students with EBDs represent the majority of those with scores lower than the 25th percentile in reading, math, and written expression measures in elementary and high school grades (Lamport, Graves and Ward, 2012).
Due to their poor reading capabilities, students with learning disabilities often struggle to develop reading fluency necessary for understanding increasingly complex literature. Reading fluency plays a critical role in enhancing reading comprehension since the ability to comprehend or draw meaning from an entire sentence starts with understanding the contextual meaning of the words used in it accurately to discern the intended and implied meanings of a body of text (Joseph et al., 2015). According to Joseph et al. (2015), understanding reading material is the most critical skill for academic success because all learning involves reading material in one form or another. Unfortunately, students with learning disabilities also suffer unfair social stigma for their disabilities within the classroom environment that undermines their engagement in the classroom participation necessary to enhance their reading skills and overall reading comprehension. By natural design, a learner’s beliefs, values, and goals are the main motivators and determinants of reading motivation, especially competence-related beliefs such as self-efficacy and control/autonomy over one’s learning (Wigfield, Gladstone, and Turci, 2016). To this end, this paper conducts a brief literature review on reading comprehension challenges affecting students with learning disabilities and proposes effective reading intervention measures based on the principles of the universal design for learning.
Justification for Literature Review
In 2005, the National Center for Education Statistics released a report that indicated that 40% of the general student population experienced reading difficulties. Of these, 80% were students with learning disabilities ranging from cognitive disabilities dyslexia to behavioral disorders such as Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Leidig et al., 2018). Five years later, the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (2011) reported that 66% of fourth and eighth graders without learning or physical disabilities and 85% of all students with learning and physical disabilities had poor reading skills that undermined sufficient reading comprehension to understanding incrementally complex texts and reading materials. Surprisingly, only 3% of fourth and eighth grade K-12 students achieved the minimum standards for reading comprehension proficiency. In addition, 66% of students in all grade levels were at-risk of academic failure because of inadequate reading and reading comprehension skills (Joseph et al., 2015).
The recent increased calls to use modern technology within classroom settings from an early age has made the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) an effective theoretical model for instruction in contemporary classrooms because of its capacity to guide the development of teaching plans that incorporate modern technologies as visual and tactile learning aids (Al-Azawei, Parslow, and Lundqvist, 2017). One way through which the UDL principles currently enhance reading comprehension is through the development of reading interventions that rely on visual and tactile learning aids in the form of emerging technologies in education such as smartphones and tablets.
Research Question
The research question investigated through this systematic literature review is:
Can reading interventions that use visual and tactile learning aids based on the UDL principles help enhance reading comprehension among students with learning disabilities in the lower grade levels (1st-3rd grade or K to 6 grade in elementary school)?
Methodology
For the purposes of this critical literature review, the typology followed is a qualitative review aimed at identifying and assessing quality studies that can help guide answer the research question herein investigated. Ensuring that the research question presented is capable of answering the issue being addressed is a necessary means of guiding the retrieval of relevant material from different sources (Galvan and Galvan, 2017). In addition, a researcher must reflect carefully on the nature of the claims he/she wishes to make through the analysis made to ensure they align with the aim of the study when choosing the methodology and research design adopted for any research inquiry (Galvan and Galvan, 2017). For the purposes of this analysis, the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) guidelines were used. They include the following six steps: the identification of research evidence to respond to the research inquiry, the selection of studies based on defined eligibility criteria, the extraction of data from the selected studies, quality assessment of the studies using quality appraisal checklists, synthesizing the data, and compiling the report (Tacconelli, 2010)
In this case, the sources are databases commonly used for educational research. Specifically, three databases were consulted because of their long history of providing quality peer-reviewed journal articles, easy access, and availability of a broad range of academic resources from different parts of the world. They include Google Scholar, ERIC, and JSTOR. Table 1 below presents the results of this search strategy.
Table 1: Search Results
Database
Search terms
No. articles
Google Scholar
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES”
AND
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS”
Limiters:
2015-2020 English, reading interventions, peer-reviewed journals
ERIC
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES”
178
AND
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS”
Limiters:
2015-2020 English, reading interventions, peer-reviewed journals
JSTOR
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES”
124
AND
“READING INTERVENTIONS FOR CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS”
Limiters:
2015-2020, English, 2015-2020 English, reading interventions, peer-reviewed journals
Total records identified after database searching
654
Total records after duplicates removed
6
After using the Mixed Method appraisal tool, a total of 6 articles were chosen because of their contemporary nature, their capacity to respond to the research question, and ability to meet the aims of the literature review.
Analysis
Analysis of the identified articles involved the rigorous application of steps three and four of the CRD guidelines: the extraction of data from the selected studies and quality assessment of the studies using quality appraisal checklists (Tacconelli, 2010). Table 2 below highlights the rigorous application of the third step and the results.
Table 2: Required Tables
Author/Year
Terms
Participants
Methodology
Findings
Al-Azawei, Parslow, and Lundqvist, 2017
Universal Design for Learning (UDL), UDL principles, Students with learning disabilities
92 undergraduates
Mixed methodology: survey and action methods
Educational technologies enhance learners’ willingness to accept e-learning as a way to bridge gaps in existing curricula
Al-Azawei, Serenelli, and Lundqvist, 2016
Universal Design for Learning (UDL), UDL principles, Students with learning difficulties
12 papers
Thematic analysis
11 of the 12 paper reviewed reported positive results from the use of UDL to enhance students’ learning experience
Joseph et al., 2015
Reading comprehension, K-12 students with and without disabilities
35 experimental research studies
Content analysis
Self-questioning strategies helped students enhance their reading comprehension
Leidig et al., 2018
Learning disabilities, reading comprehension,
22 teams of tutees and tutors
Randomized control trial
Striking gains in reading comprehensions skills from the use of the Read, Ask, and Put (RAP) strategy for at-risk fourth graders and tutees
Rao and Meo, 2016
UDL, UDL principles, flexible teaching methods
None
Theoretical framework analysis
UDL can enhance lessons when used during the lesson planning process to unwrap academic standards required in curricula
Wigfield, Gladstone, and Turci, 2016
Reading motivation, reading comprehension
None
Theoretical framework analysis
Young learners’ competence beliefs, intrinsic motivation, and value of subjects decreases over school years
From Table 2 above, 2 of the articles use theoretical framework analysis thus lack sample participants to help guide reproducing the results and two conduct thematic or content analysis thus making them qualitative at best and difficult to reproduce also beyond simply reviewing the documents to ensure the inferences made are the same. Only the remaining two conduct quantitative/analytical analysis in the form of a mixed methodology and randomized control trial. As such, the researcher embarked on further quality assessment of the studies using quality appraisal checklists to assess the validity of the studies for this literature review. Table 3 below highlights the findings:
Table 3: Optional Tables
Author/Year
Strengths
Weaknesses
Quotable Statement
Al-Azawei, Parslow, and Lundqvist, 2017
Uses the technology acceptance model (TAM)
Uses undergraduate participants rather than elementary students
Educational technologies enhance students acceptance of e-learning
Al-Azawei, Serenelli, and Lundqvist, 2016
Effective use of thematic analysis
Generalizations from the results difficult to make conclusive inferences from
UDL principles combined with educational technologies can help create effective and flexible reading intervention strategies
Joseph et al., 2015
Highlights the state of reading in schools today
Self-questioning strategies difficult to implement with elementary students unless highly motivated to read
Reading motivation determines the resultant level of reading comprehension in a learner
Leidig et al., 2018
Uses the RAP reading intervention strategy
Study focuses on at-risk fourth graders
A peer tutoring setting helps students shed some of the social stigma associated with poor reading skills and reading comprehension
Rao and Meo, 2016
Critically analyses the effectiveness of UDL principles and their capacity for application in contemporary learning environments to bridge gaps in curricula
Provides a primarily theoretical analysis of the framework
Standards-based lessons using UDL principles enhance learning outcomes for students with learning disabilities
Wigfield, Gladstone, and Turci, 2016
Only reviewed on reading intervention strategy-the Concept Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI).
Many young learners have a strong sense of their competence for different learning activities as they approach them with enthusiasm and interest.
Discussion
Based on the results of the analysis of the six articles, it is clear that reading interventions should be implemented early in students’ academic career to ensure that they do not lose interest in reading early because of social stigma and personal challenges in reading skills and reading comprehension. Young learners’ competence beliefs, intrinsic motivation, and value of subjects decrease over school years (Wigfield, Gladstone, and Turci, 2016). Considering that 70-90% of those with cognitive learning disabilities such as dyslexia are at risk of academic failure because they lack basic literacy skills that undermine their reading capabilities because they are weak at understanding the contextual use of words, which undermines their ability to draw meaning from texts and understand them, there is urgent need to ensure young learners do not lose their reading motivation to ensure they develop sufficient reading comprehension and reading fluency (Joseph et al., 2015). In this case, reading comprehension is the process of extracting and constructing meaning from words in a text concurrently through enhanced engagement with it while reading fluency is the pace, accuracy and proper expression of words and phrases in a text (Leidig et al., 2018).
Even though 67% of fourth grade students have basic reading comprehension level, indicating that majority had acquired some of the prerequisite knowledge and skills necessary for proficient reading, only 34% of them had reading comprehension proficiency (Joseph et al., 2015). Students with learning disabilities struggle to develop enhanced reading comprehension and reading fluency through academic instruction throughout their academic careers (Al-Azawei, Parslow, and Lundqvist, 2017). As a result, they have the worst reading and literacy proficiency among all students with approximately 7-11% of them achieving reading proficiency (Joseph et al., 2015). Furthermore, students from marginalized communities have the highest illiteracy rates and poorest reading and math skills that effectively undermine reading comprehension among them, which leads to systemic academic underperformance among such students. For example, only 14-18% of African American and Hispanic students scored average and above reading proficiency levels for their current grades in order to qualify for subsidized lunch rates (Joseph et al., 2015). As such, research into effective reading intervention measures based on sound theoretical frameworks is critical to help such students, especially those among them with learning disabilities.
The UDL framework has fast become one of the most advocated for pedagogical frameworks in contemporary education. It advocates for three guiding principles: representation, action and expression, as well as engagement (Al-Azawei, Serenelli, and Lundqvist, 2016). They ensure that students with learning disabilities receive support and instruction services related to their specific needs, flexible access to progressive learning material, the capacity to build their knowledge, and internalize material and concepts learned, which leads to enhanced reading comprehension (Rao and Meo, 2016).
Implications/Conclusion
Frequent reading practice enhances reading fluency to the extent that fluency skills transition from recognition accuracy to recognition automaticity (Al-Azawei, Parslow, and Lundqvist, 2017). To this end, reading interventions aimed at helping students with learning disabilities should focus on increasing reading practice instances using material that enhance reading motivation in learners thereby developing reading comprehension. According to the National Reading Panel (NRP), effective reading comprehension is made up of five critical components: phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Joseph et al., 2015). Moreover, it relies on text familiarity to understanding its structure, any necessary background knowledge the reader should have to understand it, reading motivation, adequate vocabulary knowledge, and meta-cognition to comprehend complex language (Leidig et al., 2018).
To this end, a possible implication of this in contemporary education is the possible use of UDL principles to develop a reading intervention strategy that strives to enhance reading comprehension among first to third grade elementary students using educational technologies, specifically learning tablets. The approach involves recording students reading texts stored in learning tablets provided by schools or parents in order to encourage reading motivation. The tablets will have automated voices that highlight areas where the pronunciations made do not align with the words in the text. Through such an approach, young learners will have a personal reading instruction course based on self-management through self-monitoring and self-evaluation (Mason et al., 2006).
References
Al-Azawei, A., Parslow, and Lundqvist, K. (2017). The Effect of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Application on E-learning Acceptance: A Structural Equation Model. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 18(6). DOI: 10.19173/irrodl.v18i6.2880. Retrieved August 02, 2019, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320028672_The_Effect_of_Universal_Design_for_Learning_UDL_Application_on_E-learning_Acceptance_A_Structural_Equation_Model
Al-Azawei, A., Serenelli, F., and Lundqvist, K. (2016). Universal Design for Learning (UDL): A Content Analysis of Peer-Reviewed Journal Papers from 2012 to 2015. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 16(3), 39-56. Retrieved August 02, 2019, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1104867.pdf
Galvan, J. and Galvan, M. (2017). Writing Literature Reviews: A Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis
Joseph, L., Alber-Morgan, S., Cullen, J. & Rouse, C. (2015). The Effects of Self-Questioning on Reading Comprehension: A Literature Review. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 1-22. DOI: 10.1080/10573569.2014.891449.
Lamport, M. A., Graves, L. and Ward, A. (2012). Special Needs Students in Inclusive Classrooms: The Impact of Social Interaction on Educational Outcomes for Learners with Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences 1(5), 54-69.
Leidig, T., Grunke, M., Urton, K., Knaak, T. and Hisgen, S. (2018). The effects of the RAP strategy used in a peer-tutoring setting to foster reading comprehension in high-risk fourth graders. Learning Disabilities 16(2), 231-253.
Mason, L., Meadan, H., Hedin, L. and Corso, L. (2006). Self-Regulated Strategy Development Instruction for Expository Text Comprehension. Teaching exceptional children, 47-52.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). (2011). The Nation’s Report Card: Reading 2011. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Rao, K. and Meo, G. (2016). Using Universal Design for Learning to Design Standards-Based Lessons. SAGE Open 1-12. DOI: 10.1177/2158244016680688. Retrieved August 02, 2019, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2158244016680688
Tacconelli, E. (2010). Systematic reviews: CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in health care. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 10(4), 226.doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70065-7
Wigfield, A., Gladstone, J. & Turci, L. (2016). Beyond Cognition: Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension. Child Development Perspectives 10(3), 190-195.
