Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.0. Introduction
This chapter outlines the literature on the use and impact of Information and Communication Technologies in the education sector globally, looking at the debates around the importance and impact of ICT on Education. It also highlights the introduction of ICT in South African public and private schools as well as province specific introduction of ICT, with a focus on the Gauteng Province. The purpose of the review is to gain understanding on the strides and challenges encountered in the country’s education system on the application of ICT in teaching and learning for educators and learners in different grades. Various authors have discussed the use of ICT in various levels of education and some are even advocating for paperless classrooms looking at the outcomes of improving the teaching and learning environment.
2.1 The Concept of ICT
Various authors have various definitions of ICT and it is indeed a broad concept that needs to be utilised accordingly so that its maximum benefits are released. According to Rijsenbrij (1997:2), ICT can be seen as the technologies that support the communication and co-operation of “human beings and their organizations” and the “creation and exchange of knowledge”. In 2000, the Association of African Universities defined ICT as “a shorthand for the computers, software, networks, satellite links and related systems that allow people to access, analyse, create, exchange and use data, information, and knowledge in ways that, until recently, were almost unimaginable. It refers to the infrastructure that brings together people, in different places and time zones, with multimedia tools for data, information, and knowledge management in order to expand the range of human capabilities”, The Association of African Universities (2000:3). Mdlongwa (2012: 01) defines ICT as “a global network in which people are connected, ideas are exchanged and/or information and knowledge is shared through communication gadgets like cell phones and technological equipment like computers”. ICT is commonly used as an umbrella term for a wide collection of computer based instruments, resources, environments, procedures, and skills used for obtaining, processing, and communicating information. Note however that ICT – particularly in the context of education – is often perceived from two sides: technology as an information medium, and technology as a construction medium (UNESCO, 2012).
From the above definitions one can note that ICT is a broad subject which is more than what we see as end users. As such, it requires people with skills to ensure that each component is used effectively for the achievement of good results. In 2002, (Herselman & Britton, 2002) believed that ICT will have a consequential and permeating effect in the world in most sectors but more so especially in the area of education. ICT is seen as an enabler in most developing countries (Ssewanyana & Busler, 2007) and this can increase the growth of global e-commerce and benefit countries in a positive manner. ICT has undoubtedly changed the way things are done in Africa in different sectors that affect the economy. “The adoption and usage of ICT is changing business processes, and the way people live and work. New innovations as a result of ICT are continuing to emerge”, (Ssewanyana and Busler,2007:01) and it (ICT) represents a tremendous opportunity for developing economies and countries. Countries that succeed in harnessing their potential can look forward to leap-frogging conventional obstacles of infrastructural development. Such countries are able to meet some of the Sustainable Development Goals such as poverty reduction, health, sanitation and education” (Elder et al, 2013).
2.2 Policy and legislative perspectives for the use of ICT in Education
Policy makers widely accept that access to ICT can help individuals to compete in the global economy through the creation of a skilled force, (Herselman & Britton, 2002; UNESCO, 2015 & World Bank 2019). This assertion is inclusive of ICT improving teaching and learning in schools. Various authors have agreed on the fact that the use of ICT has the potential to improve teaching and learning. Kozma (2008:02) points out that “strategic policies can provide a rationale, a set of goals, and a vision for how education systems might be with the introduction of ICT, and how students, teachers, parents, and the general population might benefit from its use in schools. Since teaching and learning is a government mandate different governments and International bodies have come together to ensure that the use of ICT is guided by policy and legislation that will benefit both the learners and teachers. UNESCO (2015: 05) asserts “ICT plays an ever important role in increasing economic productivity through digital economies, enhancing the delivery of public and private services and achieving broad socio-economic goals in education, health care, employment and social development”. Countries therefore need to work towards policies that will support the growth of ICT particularly in education.
UNESCO is one of the organisations that supports the education of citizens in various countries but it also has a strong support of ICT in Education. UNESCO believes that “ICT can complement, enrich and transform education for the better” (UNESCO, 2019). Various initiatives that support ICT in education have emanated from UNESCO and these initiatives guide countries on how to implement ICT in education. UNESCO’s work on education on ICT can be summed up under the following categories:
i) Build international consensus and provide policy recommendations to leverage ICT for achieving education through International Debates and globally significant documents.
ii) Support the development of National ICT in education policies and Master plans that will guide the implementation at national level.
iii) Ensure that teachers have necessary skills and competencies to support learning and improve student outcomes (UNESCO, 2019).
The World Bank also forms part of the key organisations that supports ICT in education. According to the World Bank (2019), they are the largest financier of education in the developing world. They work on education programs in more than 80 countries in support of SDG4 whose aim is for access to quality education and lifelong opportunities (World Bank, 2019). The World Bank has conducted research on the use ICT in education and this contributes to providing evidence that is needed to better understand the impact of technology use on teaching and learning (Trucano, 2018, 2019). One of the World Bank’s work was on the Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER), an initiative that seeks to improve the global knowledge base related to education systems analyses, assessments, diagnoses, and opportunities for dialogue. (World Bank). Trucano, 2018 pointed out that the SABER framework will assist policy makers in analysing and benchmarking their own ICT in education against the International norms. Both UNESCO and the World Bank are part of the multi stakeholder initiative into improving the available and quality of ICT data and indicators for developing countries (UNESCO, World Bank)
These initiatives began a while back and continuous research is being conducted in order to improve on the implementation. In 2004, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development was launched. According to the International Telecommunications Union, this “partnership has guided policy makers in producing ICT statistics that are crucial to inform decision-making, including through the identification of a core list of ICT indicators and methodologies to collect these indicators. The Partnership helps developing countries collect ICT statistics, particularly through capacity-building and hands-on training for national statistical offices, and collects and disseminates information society statistics” (ITU, 2019).
South Africa joined UNESCO in 1994 and by so doing adopted the guidelines of UNESCO in the implementation of ICT in education and policy development is being guided by the UNESCO principles. Besides adopting international guidelines on ICT implementation the South African government is committed to moving ICT ahead in a number of sectors including education. According to Souter (2011:08) the government has demonstrated its commitment through the following:
• “The existence of ICT public entities and agencies, and a national commission to advise on ICT development in the country;
• The existence of explicit policy on e-education and other policies that create an enabling environment for ICT development and implementation, and
• Government investment in school infrastructure that enables ICT rollout and several ICT-in-education projects”.
The Universal Service Access Agency of South Africa (USAASA) was established in terms of section 58 of the Telecommunications Act (1996). Its aim is to promote universal service and access to communications technologies and services by all South Africans. (Souter, 2011: Mdlongwa, 2012) The Presidential National Commission on Information Society and Development (PNC on ISAD), constituted in 2001, has a mandate to focus on policy and development of ICT in five priority areas of e-Government: e-Health, e-Education, Small, Micro and Medium Enterprises (SMMEs), and content development, is evidence of this commitment. The 2004 White Paper on e-education highlights the benefits of ICT for teachers, learners, managers and school administrators. (White Paper, 2004). The White Paper on education was building up on policies like the National Education Policy Act, 27 of 1996, which promotes enhancing the quality of education and educational innovation (Souter, 2011)
As mentioned by Vandeyar (2009, p.03) ‘national focus on ICT as a catalyst for economic growth and social development prompted Provincial governments to initiate ICT projects in education such as Khanya under the Western Cape and Gauteng online in Gauteng”. In an effort to drive change, the South African government has incorporated ICT usage in several sectors, including education. This led to the revision of Acts, including the Electronic Transaction Act of 2002. The Act proposed the development of a five-year strategy to ensure the empowerment of all citizens, especially in education, in a bid to increase ICT access to less privileged communities (Mdlongwa, 2012). Formalization of E-education was guided by the 2004 White Paper promoting the introduction of ICT in schools through various engagements. In 2006, the Information Society and Development (ISAD) Plan was formulated (Mnisi, 2015).
The White Paper on e-education still remains the guiding document for ICT usage in South African schools. All other legislatives that came into places were linked to it. According to the White Paper (2004, p.12) the “concept of e-Education revolves around the use of ICTs to accelerate the achievement of national education goals, connecting learners and teachers to each other and to professional support services, and providing platforms for learning”. The White Paper further asserts that e-Education views ICTs as a resource for reorganising schooling, and a tool to assist whole-school development. It includes ICTs as:
· a tool for management;
· an administration tool to increase productivity;
· a resource for curriculum integration;
· a communication tool;
· a collaborative tool for teachers and learners; and
· a learning environment that advances creativity, communication, collaboration and engagement. (White Paper 2004: 12)
Having policies in place, South Africa shows an indication that ICT is just not about providing gadgets to schools but ICT is a means of improving both teaching and learning for the achievement of educational outcomes. This not only focuses on teaching and learning but also on the administrative part of education.

Alcado et al (2019) pointed out that African countries are continuing to adopt policies that promote the growth in socio economic activities and this including education. They argue that this promotes development and completion that is necessary for growth. Measuring ICT policy implementation the Sub- Saharan Africa has been a challenge because of lack of systematic data collection, UNESCO, 2015. In terms of education The integration if ICT in schools has not moved as quickly as was anticipated because of lack of formal policy in some cases, financial resources, basic infrastructure (such as electricity, internet, software, hardware) and teachers without appropriate skills to push the agenda forward as well as low priority as compared to enrolment in schools Acado et al, 2019 & UNESCO 2018). Kinuthua (2009) highlights lack of ICT project management and in some cases corruption as some of the issues that have led to the ineffective implementation and adoption of ICT.
In South Africa whilst the policy has been formulated, Ostrowic, 2016 argues that a number of initiatives are not clear in terms of the expected outcomes. Meyer and Gent (2016) point out that the objectives do not translate into achievable outcomes, they are just defined in general terms. Due to lack of clear guidelines some provinces have developed their own strategies on how to introduce ICT in education. (Ostrowic, 2016, Marias et al, 2016). Meyer and Gent (2016) identified three challenges that hinder the full integration in South Africa and they are as follows:
• “While strategy and policy exists, implementation is slow and capacity is limited. Objectives are not clear, and an integrated strategy across the system is lacking.
• Access to technology is limited and unequal across provinces and quintiles. In the absence of clear, integrative provincial strategies, progress is fragmented and driven by solution providers.
• System-wide change management needs to be prioritised, and ICT-enabled assessment needs consideration” Meyer and Gent, (2016:39)
(MDLONGWA CONCLUSIONS)

Impact of ICT in Education
According to Mukhari (2016:21) “the new social change, ICTs, globalization and the new knowledge economy have ushered in changes in the education fraternity”. Despite the changes education still remains the foundation for an individual, community and ultimately national development. In order to work towards sustainable development quality education must be provided to citizens. According to UNESCO, 2012, the Sustainable Development Goal 4 is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Two of the underlying principles are:
i) Education is a fundamental human right and enabling right.
ii) Education is a public good
Education itself has two perspective that could also be called informational (getting information and skills) and constructional (creating and discovering, constructing knowledge) UNESCO, 2012. Use of ICT as a new skill in the 21st century has the potential to strengthen the access of information and help learners discover more. The South African government’s White Paper on Education (2004:08) points out that “ICTs have increased the effectiveness and reach of developmental interventions, enhanced good governance and lowered the cost of delivering basic social services and has the potential to improve the quality of education and training”. With the help of the Internet and technologies for communication, visualization, and simulation, students can be offered a more authentic learning experience. They are able to gain a deeper sense of a discipline as a “culture” shaped by specific ways of seeing and interpreting the world (UNESCO, 2013 p. 47). “ICT is relevant within education as a means of supporting a progression of learning, and is best employed in support of a value creation process in teaching and learning”, Meyer & Gent (2016: 10).

This review provides an insight on what different authors have established on the impact, either positive or negative of ICT in schools.

2.3 Advantages of Using ICT in Learning and Teaching
Teaching styles have changed significantly over the years globally (CSSS, 2017). Education reforms means that learning is taught from a different angle as compared to what has always been the case. (CSSS, 2017). Over the years ICT has been introduced to classrooms but in the 21st century, it is driving huge changes around the world and classrooms around the globe and South Africa are no exception, Ogeden, 2015. Castello, 2001 highlighted that the current golden age of technology is built on a foundation of knowledge and its expansion will benefit the education sector. ICT was introduced to the classroom as a way of improving teaching and learning that will benefit both the teacher and the learner. Meyer and Gent (2016) argue that technology for the sake of technology is unlikely to have an impact on education but there must be effective integration through the use of appropriate technological tools at right places. Castello, 2002, Ogeden, 2015 & OLE-Nepal, 2019 support the notion that ICT can have positive contribution to the teaching and learning outcomes even though there is a misconception that ICT is about teaching computer skills. ICT has undoubtedly changed the education environment and the various advantages will be discussed below:

2.3.1 Conditioning
The use of ICT in the teaching and learning field has provided both teachers and learners with benefits that have the potential to impact teaching and learning. OLE, Nepal (2019) and the Webanywhere (2019) identified the following benefits:
• ICT promotes learning by doing,
• It enhances learning through interaction and collaboration
• Provides a platform that engages children
The above advantages are of the idea that when using ICT tools it is highly likely to have active participants as opposed to passive ones who will be looking forward to the teacher leading the process. Yunus et al (2013) pointed out that use of ICT promotes students interest in presenting their ideas to their classmates and allowing effective peer feedback.

2.3.2 Self-paced and individual learning
Herselman and Britton (2002) argued that ICT is changing every facet of our lives, changing the way we do business, the way we live and importantly the way we learn. This has affected the traditional way of teaching and learning and allowed children to experience learning in a diverse way. ICT has enabled self-paced as well as individual learning. (OLE Nepal, 2019 & Webanywhere, 2019). Kilgore (2012) is of the idea that not only will students learn by using technology to answer some of their questions but they will continue their learning anywhere – something that cannot be easily done with pen and paper. The author further points out that if a student has a vague knowledge on a topic discussed in a class, he or she can simply log onto the internet at home or outside the classroom and enhance their understanding. The critical factor in this discussion is that further learning is likely to take place because the child/ learner will be using gadgets after hours from their homes. Children no longer need to be confined within the walls of the school as well as the use of textbooks but they can now learn anywhere and anytime. Ogden (2015:10) contends that every learner can learn at their own pace, allows more focus on individual learners. He further points out that learners are able to continually assess themselves, determine how they are doing and identify areas of weaknesses, without the intervention of the teacher.

2.3.3 Access to a plethora of resources
The 21st century has evolved a lot especially due to the introduction of ICT in the teaching and learning field. The teacher’s job in a way has been made easier as children have access to information from the internet that can enhance their learning process. ICT provides access to a wide range of up to date learning materials, enriches learning through a combination of audio, video, images and text animation. The teachers also have access to online resources that can assist them in teaching process. (OLE Nepal, Webanywhere, 2019). The above discussion is a clear indication that both the teachers as well as the students have benefits of accessing various resources that can enhance the teaching and learning process. The teacher and the textbook are no longer the main source of reference but children can now access more resources online that can improve their understanding. For example youtube features multiple tutors who can expound on certain topics thus giving more understanding to the learners. Yamusi, Nordini, Salehi, Embil, Salehi (2013) point out that using ICT can motivate students to be creative and learn in an enjoyable environment. For example, they can easily write their essays anytime referring to a number of sources on the web. This is unlike in the past where the only point of reference was the textbook or even sources that cannot be quoted or referenced. They further asset that “students can use the Internet to search for the information they may need for writing. For example, if they are going to write about a personality they admire, they can ‘google’ to find more information about the person they selected”.

2.3.4 Management of education
Schools records have been largely managed through a paper system. Schools were keeping files for children registration and school reports. Over the years there has been some remarkable changes with the introduction of computers and laptops in various schools. The Department of Education in Gauteng took this even by introducing the online registration for Grade 1 and Grade 8 pupils.
Meyer and Gent 2016:11 highlighted three examples where ICT has been applied in the management of schools or education and there are:
• “Collecting management information such as learner records, teacher records, test results, etc.
• Automating management activities, e.g. preparing financial statements, developing school timetables, calculating and paying teachers’ salaries.
• Reporting management information at various levels of the system i.e. the school headmaster, the district, the provincial department and the national department.”
The above discussion by Meyer and Gent is a clear pointer to the advantage that ICT has brought into the management of education in schools for example learner records can be stored electronically and can be easily accessed even years after the learner has left the institution which was not the case in the past. Some schools (Irene Primary in Centurion, Florida Primary and ) have even taken the use of ICT by creating platforms that engages teachers and parents where school issues such as announcements, homework, upcoming events and anything that relates to the running and management of schools.

2.4 Challenges of using ICT in education
The use of ICT as a new skill in 21st century has the potential to strengthen the access to information and help learners discover more in the information age but just like any new skill ICT comes with various disadvantages or challenges that can hamper or hinder the successful implementation in schools. One of the major challenges is the buy in or readiness of teachers in adopting or pushing the agenda of ICT. According to Suryani (2010) teachers play a dynamic role in the successful implementation of ICT in class- how they perceive the whole process can determine the successful implementation of the programmes. Mdlongwa (2012) alludes to the fact that staff resistance due to fear of change or lack of training can make the implementation ineffective. At the end, ICT can be for cosmetic use, technological imperative, romantic vision or technological competition as highlighted by Suryani (2010). (give examples of teachers)
According to Pholoto and Mtshweni (2016) poor infrastructure is one of the disadvantages or challenges that come with the use of ICT. They indicated the poor quality of cellular networks, lack of fixed lie access, network infrastructure due to vandalism, shortage of computers and lack of ICT maintenance. Challenges raised by the Pholoto and Mtshweni relate to financing as some if not most of the schools rely on government to set up and run the various programmes in schools. Mdlongwa (2012) argued that ICT set up is costly and the costs thereof might hinder the achievement of the desired result. On the other hand, Suryani (2010:9) pointed out “that the rapid changes of ICT raises a challenge for schools as they have to continually need finance so that they keep up with the update-ness of technology”. Postholom (2007) pointed out there is need for regular maintenance of the ICT equipment so that the teaching and learning processes are not sabotaged by technical problems. This implies that apart from the set up expenses, schools must be in a position to keep the tools running for the effective teaching and learning processes.

ICT implementation with specific reference to Gauteng Province
The Gauteng Department of Education has been quick to seize the opportunity of embracing and implementing ICT in some of its schools within the province. In 2001 the Gauteng Province embarked on the GautengOnline project whose aim was to provide schools with a computer network. In 2009, Mahlong, a journalist reported that the project was announced in 2001, and initially allocated R500 million over the course of three years to build the computer network. In 2005, an additional R100 million was allocated to fast-track the project and the deadline for its completion was first extended to 2006, then to 2007. According to Souter (2011: 13) “By 2010, the GoL project had functional laboratories in 1,665 schools, benefitting 1.5million learners in the province. Seventy five primary schools had the Foundation Phase e-Learning resource pack loaded onto computers.” This above discussion points out that there were strides taken by the Gauteng Department of education though there were challenges that led to the discontinuation of the program. In 2013 the then Gauteng MEC for Finance, Mr Mandla Nkomfe issued a statement that marked the end of the project due to the need for a redesign of the project. This was after various consultation with the Department of Education, School Governing Bodies as well as other stakeholders (Politics Web, 2019).
During the GoL project the Department of Education developed guidelines for the Implementation of ICT in schools. The guidelines as indicated in the GUIDELINES ON THE MANAGEMENT AND USAGE OF ICTs IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN GAUTENG (2011: 11) focused on the following eight key areas:
· “The application of ICTs to support management and administration in the school
· The application of ICTs to support curriculum delivery in the school
· The management and physical usage of ICTs in the school
· Roles and responsibilities
· A framework for a school ICT policy
· A framework for a school ICT development plan
· Guidance in setting up a timetable for school computer laboratory/ies
· Examples of school ICT policies and additional policies related to ICT usage in schools”
Meyer and Gent (2016) alluded that technology for the sake of technology will never yield desired result, there is need for clear guidance so that schools are better placed to implement and achieve desired results. The GDE guidelines were detailed enough to at least channel schools in the right direction so that efforts are not futile but that they support the educational outcomes.
Ramian, 2017 highlighted that in January 2015, the GDE launched the ‘Big Switch On’. In this first phase of the e-learning project, the department equipped the classrooms of seven schools with high-speed broadband connectivity, laptops, interactive smartboards, and supply tablet devices to learners. According to the GDE, connectivity was provided, the tablets were distributed with preloaded lessons and tracking devices and each school had two armed security guards to ensure safety. The GDE’s Oupa Bodibe quoted by the Brainstorm Magazine argued that “the intention of the e-learning programme is to change the landscape of township education by levelling the playground, providing more resources for learners to use technology in curriculum delivery. He further indicated that the main criterion used to measure the programme’s success is the level of adoption, utilisation and integration.” Ramain, 2017. In 2017 the province set aside R1.9 billion to be utilised over three years to roll out its e-learning strategy. The MEC explained that the province will continue with its modernisation efforts as funds have been set aside to prepare and support the institutionalisation of ICT in schools, (IT Web, 2017).

Challenges specific to Gauteng
A year later, Lesufi called on the matrics of 2015 to return their tablets to the schools, as only 81% of the tablets had been brought back. By 2016, 75% of township schools in Gauteng were connected to the internet, according to Lesufi. He said that 64 000 tablets were allocated to matric students in 2015, but 8 000 of these were stolen, and 4 000 were still outstanding. (Ramiah , 2017)

Sample Solution